Evidence library

Garcia-Argibay ve ark. 2019 · Meta-analysis · 22 studies

A meta-analysis of 22 studies on memory, attention, anxiety and pain found a medium, significant overall effect. Listening before the task (or before and during it) worked better than listening only during it, and longer exposure increased the effect. Masking with white or pink noise did not appear necessary.

Overall g = 0.45 (35 effect sizes from 22 studies)

First published online in 2018. The abstract gives no confidence interval. Its reference list includes a study retracted in 2021 (Colzato et al. 2017, PMID 28409319); the abstract does not show whether it was included in the analysis.

Garcia-Argibay M, Santed MA, Reales JM. Efficacy of binaural auditory beats in cognition, anxiety, and pain perception: a meta-analysis. Psychol Res. 2019;83(2):357-372. doi:10.1007/s00426-018-1066-8 PMID 30073406 Go to source

Xiong ve ark. 2025 · Meta-analysis · 15 studies

In a meta-analysis of 15 randomized trials in surgical patients, perioperative binaural beats were associated with lower anxiety and postoperative pain scores than blank audio. Heterogeneity between trials was very high; the authors call for standardized protocols and better trials.

Versus blank audio: anxiety SMD −1.38 (95% CI −1.89 to −0.87; 14 trials; I² 91.6%); postoperative pain SMD −0.61 (95% CI −1.03 to −0.19; 5 trials; I² 75.8%)

Xiong J, Jiang X, Cai B, Zhao L, Zhang Q, Luo J. Binaural beats for perioperative anxiety and pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Complement Ther Med. 2025;95:103299. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2025.103299 PMID 41176178 Go to source

Fatima ve ark. 2026 · Meta-analysis · 13 studies · 630 participants

Of 13 randomized trials (630 participants) of theta (4-8 Hz) binaural beats, only pain could be pooled: binaural beats were associated with less pain than controls (low certainty by GRADE). Anxiety and cognition outcomes were measured too differently to pool.

Pain SMD −0.53 (95% CI −0.84 to −0.23; 4 trials, n = 173; I² 0%)

Fatima I, Zaidi S, Sundus H, Alam MF, Parveen H, Khan SA. Efficacy of theta binaural beat therapy on pain, cognition and anxiety in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Explore (NY). 2026;22(5):103471. doi:10.1016/j.explore.2026.103471 PMID 42349368 Go to source

Shamsi ve ark. 2024 · Systematic review · 16 studies

Sixteen randomised trials of binaural beats for acute and chronic pain in adults (13 acute, 3 chronic) were reviewed; no meta-analysis was done because the studies differed too much. Most had high risk of bias and the evidence quality was low to very low. The authors name alpha or delta-to-alpha tones as a possible option for acute pain and call for better studies on chronic pain.

Shamsi F, Azadinia F, Shaygan M. Does brain entrainment using binaural auditory beats affect pain perception in acute and chronic pain?: a systematic review. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2024;24(1):34. doi:10.1186/s12906-024-04339-y PMID 38216943 Go to source

Moore 2013 · Textbook

A standard textbook of auditory perception. Its chapter on frequency selectivity and masking describes how one sound raises the detection threshold of another (auditory masking) and how this depends on frequency bands.

6th edition.

Moore BCJ. An Introduction to the Psychology of Hearing. Brill; 2013. ISBN 9789004252424 Go to source

Basner ve ark. 2026 · Randomised controlled trial · 25 participants

A seven-night laboratory study in 25 healthy adults: intermittent environmental noise mainly reduced deep sleep (N3), whereas pink noise mainly reduced REM sleep, and adding pink noise to environmental noise worsened sleep structure further. Earplugs prevented most environmental-noise effects. The authors caution against widespread, indiscriminate use of broadband noise.

Pink noise alone (50 dBA) vs a quiet night: REM sleep −18.6 min (p = .0003)

Basner M, Smith MG, Cordoza M, Kayser MS, Carlin M, Ecker AJ, et al. Efficacy of pink noise and earplugs for mitigating the effects of intermittent environmental noise exposure on sleep. Sleep. 2026;49(5):zsag001. doi:10.1093/sleep/zsag001 PMID 41627391 Go to source

Riedy ve ark. 2021 · Systematic review · 38 studies

Across 38 studies of continuous white or similar broadband noise and sleep, findings ranged from noise helping sleep to disrupting it. By GRADE, the quality of evidence that continuous noise benefits sleep was very low; the authors warn that continuous noise may also harm sleep and hearing.

Riedy SM, Smith MG, Rocha S, Basner M. Noise as a sleep aid: A systematic review. Sleep Med Rev. 2021;55:101385. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101385 PMID 33007706 Go to source

Goyal ve ark. 2014 · Meta-analysis · 47 studies · 3,515 participants

In a meta-analysis of 47 randomized trials with active controls (3,515 participants), mindfulness meditation programs showed small positive effects on anxiety, depression and pain with moderate-strength evidence, and low-strength evidence for stress and distress. There was no evidence that the programs were better than drugs, exercise or other behavioral approaches. Participants came from diverse clinical populations.

Versus active controls: anxiety effect size 0.38 (95% CI 0.12-0.64; week 8); pain 0.33 (95% CI 0.03-0.62)

'Moderate' is the authors' strength-of-evidence grade (not GRADE) and applies to anxiety, depression and pain.

Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, Gould NF, Rowland-Seymour A, Sharma R, et al. Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174(3):357-368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018 PMID 24395196 Go to source

NCCIH 2022 · Institutional page

NCCIH notes that much meditation and mindfulness research has been preliminary or not rigorous and may have been interpreted too optimistically. For anxiety and stress, some analyses found mindfulness-based approaches better than no intervention, while short-term results varied between studies.

The page shows 'Last Updated: June 2022'.

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH). Meditation and Mindfulness: Effectiveness and Safety. National Institutes of Health; 2022. Go to source

Laborde ve ark. 2022 · Meta-analysis · 223 studies

A systematic review and meta-analysis of 223 studies on voluntary slow breathing and heart rate variability. Vagally mediated heart rate variability increased during slow breathing, immediately after a single session and after multi-session programmes.

Laborde S, Allen MS, Borges U, Dosseville F, Hosang TJ, Iskra M, Mosley E, Salvotti C, Spolverato L, Zammit N, Javelle F. Effects of voluntary slow breathing on heart rate and heart rate variability: A systematic review and a meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022;138:104711. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104711 PMID 35623448 Go to source

Goessl ve ark. 2017 · Meta-analysis · 24 studies · 484 participants

A meta-analysis of 24 studies (484 participants) on heart rate variability biofeedback training: a large reduction in self-reported stress and anxiety (g = 0.83 against controls). The authors call for better-controlled studies.

Between-groups g = 0.83

Biofeedback paces breathing to heart rhythm measured by a device; it is not the same as pacing with sound alone.

Goessl VC, Curtiss JE, Hofmann SG. The effect of heart rate variability biofeedback training on stress and anxiety: a meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2017;47(15):2578-2586. doi:10.1017/S0033291717001003 PMID 28478782 Go to source

Fincham ve ark. 2023 · Meta-analysis · 12 studies · 785 participants

A meta-analysis of randomised trials comparing breathwork with non-breathwork controls: a small-to-medium reduction in self-reported stress (12 trials, 785 adults), with similar effects on secondary mental health measures. Most studies had moderate risk of bias; the authors urge caution so that hype and evidence are not confused.

Self-reported stress: g = −0.35 (95% CI −0.55 to −0.14)

One author declared a link with a foundation that teaches breathing techniques.

Fincham GW, Strauss C, Montero-Marin J, Cavanagh K. Effect of breathwork on stress and mental health: A meta-analysis of randomised-controlled trials. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):432. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-27247-y PMID 36624160 Go to source

Goessl ve ark. 2017 · Meta-analysis · 24 studies · 484 participants

A meta-analysis of 24 studies (484 participants) on heart rate variability biofeedback training: a large reduction in self-reported stress and anxiety (g = 0.83 against controls). The authors call for better-controlled studies.

Between-groups g = 0.83

Biofeedback paces breathing to heart rhythm measured by a device; it is not the same as pacing with sound alone.

Goessl VC, Curtiss JE, Hofmann SG. The effect of heart rate variability biofeedback training on stress and anxiety: a meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2017;47(15):2578-2586. doi:10.1017/S0033291717001003 PMID 28478782 Go to source

Jespersen ve ark. 2022 · Systematic review · 13 studies · 1,007 participants

A Cochrane review of 13 randomised trials (1007 participants) of music listening in adults with sleep difficulties. Listening to prerecorded music for 25-60 minutes a day improved subjective sleep quality compared with no intervention, with moderate certainty. Low-certainty benefits were found for sleep-onset latency, total sleep time and sleep efficiency; three studies with objective measures suggest music may not improve these. No adverse events were reported.

Sleep quality (PSQI): mean difference −2.79 (95% CI −3.86 to −1.72), 10 studies, 708 participants

All studies have high risk of performance bias because participants could not be blinded to music. The certainty rating applies to subjective sleep quality.

Jespersen KV, Pando-Naude V, Koenig J, Jennum P, Vuust P. Listening to music for insomnia in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022;8(8):CD010459. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010459.pub3 PMID 36000763 Go to source

Pan ve Wang 2025 · Review

A narrative review drawing on randomised trials and meta-analyses: the most effective music was slow (60-80 bpm), soft and smooth in melody, instrumental and simple in structure. Suggested use is 30-45 minutes a day before bed at a comfortable volume. Long-term effects and mechanisms remain unclear.

Pan EY, Wang W. Elements of music that work to improve sleep, a narrative review. Front Sleep. 2025;4:1707162. doi:10.3389/frsle.2025.1707162 PMID 41425167 Go to source

Yang ve ark. 2025 · Systematic review

An umbrella review of 6 systematic reviews (40 primary studies) of music for preoperative anxiety: the pooled result showed a significant reduction, more pronounced with sessions of 20 minutes or longer. Reporting of how music was delivered was often inadequate.

Mean difference −5.20 (95% CI −6.32 to −4.07), I² = 49%

Yang KL, Detroyer E, Niu MM, Hoogma DF, Tian JH, Rex S, Milisen K. Music intervention as a strategy to reduce preoperative anxiety: an umbrella review. BMC Anesthesiol. 2025;25(1):410. doi:10.1186/s12871-025-03120-z PMID 40836211 Go to source

Garcia-Argibay ve ark. 2019 · Meta-analysis · 22 studies

A meta-analysis of 22 studies on memory, attention, anxiety and pain found a medium, significant overall effect. Listening before the task (or before and during it) worked better than listening only during it, and longer exposure increased the effect. Masking with white or pink noise did not appear necessary.

Overall g = 0.45 (35 effect sizes from 22 studies)

First published online in 2018. The abstract gives no confidence interval. Its reference list includes a study retracted in 2021 (Colzato et al. 2017, PMID 28409319); the abstract does not show whether it was included in the analysis.

Garcia-Argibay M, Santed MA, Reales JM. Efficacy of binaural auditory beats in cognition, anxiety, and pain perception: a meta-analysis. Psychol Res. 2019;83(2):357-372. doi:10.1007/s00426-018-1066-8 PMID 30073406 Go to source

Xiong ve ark. 2025 · Meta-analysis · 15 studies

In a meta-analysis of 15 randomized trials in surgical patients, perioperative binaural beats were associated with lower anxiety and postoperative pain scores than blank audio. Heterogeneity between trials was very high; the authors call for standardized protocols and better trials.

Versus blank audio: anxiety SMD −1.38 (95% CI −1.89 to −0.87; 14 trials; I² 91.6%); postoperative pain SMD −0.61 (95% CI −1.03 to −0.19; 5 trials; I² 75.8%)

Xiong J, Jiang X, Cai B, Zhao L, Zhang Q, Luo J. Binaural beats for perioperative anxiety and pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Complement Ther Med. 2025;95:103299. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2025.103299 PMID 41176178 Go to source

Platt ve Hammond 2025 · Systematic review · 12 studies

Of 12 randomized trials of binaural beats for stress, 8 reported at least one significant effect favouring binaural beats and 4 found none. Citing methodological heterogeneity and unclear randomisation and blinding, the authors concluded the evidence does not strongly support widespread recommendation and little is known about adverse effects.

No pooled effect; 8 of 12 trials reported at least one significant effect, 4 found no group differences

First published online in 2024. Not indexed in PubMed.

Platt J, Hammond L. Is non-clinical, personal use of binaural beats audio an effective stress-management strategy? A systematic review of randomised control trials. Adv Ment Health. 2025;23(2):258-286. doi:10.1080/18387357.2024.2374759 Go to source

Akkurt ve Ekici 2026 · Randomised controlled trial · 90 participants

In 90 patients undergoing impacted lower third molar surgery in Türkiye, neither binaural beats nor isochronic tones reduced anxiety compared with no sound; only isolated physiological differences appeared. Of the patients who received sound, 78.3% said they would prefer it again in future procedures.

No significant between-group differences in pre- or postoperative anxiety scores

In press; no volume or pages yet.

Akkurt O, Ekici Ö. Effect of binaural beats and isochronic tones on anxiety during impacted mandibular third molar surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2026. doi:10.1016/j.ijom.2026.07.006 PMID 42471303 Go to source

Leistiko ve ark. 2024 · Experiment · 58 participants

In 58 healthy adults, 40 Hz (gamma) binaural beats did not change attention-test performance (reaction time, errors, attention networks) compared with a control tone, and had no effect on a single-item self-rating of anxiety.

No significant difference from a control tone in attention measures or self-rated anxiety

First published online in 2023. Within-subject crossover with randomized order.

Leistiko NM, Madanat L, Yeung WKA, Stone JM. Effects of gamma frequency binaural beats on attention and anxiety. Curr Psychol. 2024;43(6):5032-5039. doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04681-3 PMID 37359672 Go to source

Ostertag ve ark. 2025 · Randomised controlled trial

In patients awaiting planned surgery, state anxiety fell slightly more in the group that listened to binaural beats before surgery than in the unstimulated control group (mean relative difference 6 percentage points, p = 0.045); anxiety fell in both groups. Alpha power did not differ between groups.

Online ahead of print; no volume or pages yet. The authors suggest other comparisons, such as monaural beats, to see whether the effect goes beyond listening to music.

Ostertag J, Zinn S, Georgii MT, Niederle MB, Pinto Campos C, Schneider G, Hayden O, Kratzer S, Kreuzer M. Binaural beat stimulation as a tool to reduce preoperative anxiety in patients undergoing elective surgery and general anesthesia - results from a randomized controlled trial. Biomed Phys Eng Express. 2025. doi:10.1088/2057-1976/adfa9d PMID 40795897 Go to source

Garcia-Argibay ve ark. 2019 · Meta-analysis · 22 studies

A meta-analysis of 22 studies on memory, attention, anxiety and pain found a medium, significant overall effect. Listening before the task (or before and during it) worked better than listening only during it, and longer exposure increased the effect. Masking with white or pink noise did not appear necessary.

Overall g = 0.45 (35 effect sizes from 22 studies)

First published online in 2018. The abstract gives no confidence interval. Its reference list includes a study retracted in 2021 (Colzato et al. 2017, PMID 28409319); the abstract does not show whether it was included in the analysis.

Garcia-Argibay M, Santed MA, Reales JM. Efficacy of binaural auditory beats in cognition, anxiety, and pain perception: a meta-analysis. Psychol Res. 2019;83(2):357-372. doi:10.1007/s00426-018-1066-8 PMID 30073406 Go to source

Basu ve Banerjee 2023 · Meta-analysis · 15 studies

A meta-analysis of 15 studies found a medium, significant overall effect of binaural beats on memory and attention. The systematic review found conflicting results, especially for theta and beta beats on memory and attention tasks; the authors call for more robust designs.

Overall g = 0.40 (31 effect sizes from 15 studies)

First published online in 2022.

Basu S, Banerjee B. Potential of binaural beats intervention for improving memory and attention: insights from meta-analysis and systematic review. Psychol Res. 2023;87(4):951-963. doi:10.1007/s00426-022-01706-7 PMID 35842538 Go to source

Melnichuk ve ark. 2025 · Experiment · 80 participants

Sixteen parameter conditions were tested; 80 undergraduates were randomized and 64 analysed. 40 Hz binaural beats with a low (340 Hz) carrier improved general attention performance but did not prevent the decline of attention over time. EEG showed a response at the beat frequency that varied with parameters and weakened under white-noise masking. The authors say the finding needs replication.

Higher hit rate than a pure tone for 40 Hz beats with a 340 Hz carrier (p = 0.002); no effect on the vigilance decrement

Melnichuk A, Cooper RK, Hawk LW. A parametric investigation of binaural beats for brain entrainment and enhancing sustained attention. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):4308. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-88517-z PMID 39910150 Go to source

Klichowski ve ark. 2023 · Experiment · 1,000 participants

In two online home experiments, 1,000 adults took a reasoning test. Listening to binaural beats during the second half lowered scores regardless of how the sound was framed, while silence and other sounds had no effect. The authors concluded that home-use binaural beats may weaken rather than support cognitive performance.

About 5-7% lower reasoning-test scores during 5 Hz and 15 Hz binaural beats (second experiment); silence, classical music and a pure tone had no effect

Klichowski M, Wicher A, Kruszwicka A, Golebiewski R. Reverse effect of home-use binaural beats brain stimulation. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):11079. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-38313-4 PMID 37422545 Go to source

Leistiko ve ark. 2024 · Experiment · 58 participants

In 58 healthy adults, 40 Hz (gamma) binaural beats did not change attention-test performance (reaction time, errors, attention networks) compared with a control tone, and had no effect on a single-item self-rating of anxiety.

No significant difference from a control tone in attention measures or self-rated anxiety

First published online in 2023. Within-subject crossover with randomized order.

Leistiko NM, Madanat L, Yeung WKA, Stone JM. Effects of gamma frequency binaural beats on attention and anxiety. Curr Psychol. 2024;43(6):5032-5039. doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04681-3 PMID 37359672 Go to source

Robison ve ark. 2022 · Experiment

Three experiments tested 16 Hz (beta) binaural beats on sustained attention. The first two gave inconsistent results; their combined data gave rather strong evidence against the hypothesis that beta beats improve sustained attention. Pupil measures showed no effect either.

First published online in 2021.

Robison MK, Obulasetty M, Blais C, Wingert KM, Brewer GA. The effect of binaural beat stimulation on sustained attention. Psychol Res. 2022;86(3):808-822. doi:10.1007/s00426-021-01524-3 PMID 33978805 Go to source

Ingendoh ve ark. 2023 · Systematic review · 14 studies

Of 14 EEG studies on binaural beats and brain oscillations, 5 were consistent with the entrainment hypothesis, 8 contradicted it and 1 was mixed. The studies differed greatly in method, which limits comparison; the authors call for standardized approaches.

No pooled effect; of 14 EEG studies, 5 were consistent with entrainment, 8 contradicted it and 1 was mixed

Ingendoh RM, Posny ES, Heine A. Binaural beats to entrain the brain? A systematic review of the effects of binaural beat stimulation on brain oscillatory activity, and the implications for psychological research and intervention. PLoS One. 2023;18(5):e0286023. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0286023 PMID 37205669 Go to source

Orozco Perez ve ark. 2020 · Experiment · 16 participants

In a 16-person EEG experiment, both binaural and monaural beats produced a brainstem response at the tone frequencies and a cortical response at the beat frequency; the cortical response to binaural beats was weaker than to monaural beats. Neither stimulus changed mood.

Orozco Perez HD, Dumas G, Lehmann A. Binaural Beats through the Auditory Pathway: From Brainstem to Connectivity Patterns. eNeuro. 2020;7(2):ENEURO.0232-19.2020. doi:10.1523/ENEURO.0232-19.2020 PMID 32066611 Go to source

Melnichuk ve ark. 2025 · Experiment · 80 participants

Sixteen parameter conditions were tested; 80 undergraduates were randomized and 64 analysed. 40 Hz binaural beats with a low (340 Hz) carrier improved general attention performance but did not prevent the decline of attention over time. EEG showed a response at the beat frequency that varied with parameters and weakened under white-noise masking. The authors say the finding needs replication.

Higher hit rate than a pure tone for 40 Hz beats with a 340 Hz carrier (p = 0.002); no effect on the vigilance decrement

Melnichuk A, Cooper RK, Hawk LW. A parametric investigation of binaural beats for brain entrainment and enhancing sustained attention. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):4308. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-88517-z PMID 39910150 Go to source

Dabiri ve ark. 2022 · Pilot study · 20 participants

Twenty healthy students had a baseline week without sound, then a week of nightly 90-minute 3 Hz binaural beats (174/177 Hz). Sleep diaries showed shorter sleep latency, fewer awakenings and longer sleep. There was no control or sham group, and sleep was measured only by diary.

Dabiri R, Monazzam Esmaielpour MR, Salmani Nodoushan M, Khaneshenas F, Zakerian SA. The effect of auditory stimulation using delta binaural beat for a better sleep and post-sleep mood: A pilot study. Digit Health. 2022;8:20552076221102243. doi:10.1177/20552076221102243 PMID 35615269 Go to source

Lee ve ark. 2024 · Pilot study · 10 participants

A two-night crossover proof-of-concept study with polysomnography in 10 healthy participants: 'dynamic' binaural beats with a 0-3 Hz varying difference shortened sleep latency compared with a silent control night.

The control night was silent; no matched sound was used.

Lee HA, Lee WJ, Kim SU, Kim H, Ahn M, Kim J, et al. Effect of dynamic binaural beats on sleep quality: a proof-of-concept study with questionnaire and biosignals. Sleep. 2024;47(10):zsae097. doi:10.1093/sleep/zsae097 PMID 38629490 Go to source

Elnazer 2026 · Systematic review

In a systematic review of music and binaural-beat interventions in young adults, most studies reported a positive change in at least one of anxiety, sleep or cognition. Heterogeneity ruled out a meta-analysis, and the author notes that small samples limit certainty.

No pooled estimate; study-level SMDs 0.3-0.6

The abstract reports 10 trials, the body 12 studies (about 970 participants).

Elnazer HY. Music and binaural beat interventions for young adults: A systematic review of effects on anxiety, sleep, and cognition. Acta Neuropsychiatr. 2026;38:e15. doi:10.1017/neu.2026.10057 PMID 41656644 Go to source

Shumov ve ark. 2023 · Experiment · 221 participants

221 people fell asleep at home with an app on their own phone while listening to three kinds of monotonous sound at the same pitch: binaural beats, monaural beats and a sound without beats. Sleep latency did not differ significantly between the three conditions (p = 0.21).

The article is in Russian; this summary is based on the English abstract.

Shumov DE, Sveshnikov DS, Bakaeva ZV, Dorokhov VB. Monotonous sound stimuli embedded with either binaural or monaural beats have the same effect on sleep latency: study on a large subject group. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2023;123(4):109-113. doi:10.17116/jnevro2023123041109 PMID 37084374 Go to source

Garcia-Argibay ve ark. 2019 · Meta-analysis · 22 studies

A meta-analysis of 22 studies on memory, attention, anxiety and pain found a medium, significant overall effect. Listening before the task (or before and during it) worked better than listening only during it, and longer exposure increased the effect. Masking with white or pink noise did not appear necessary.

Overall g = 0.45 (35 effect sizes from 22 studies)

First published online in 2018. The abstract gives no confidence interval. Its reference list includes a study retracted in 2021 (Colzato et al. 2017, PMID 28409319); the abstract does not show whether it was included in the analysis.

Garcia-Argibay M, Santed MA, Reales JM. Efficacy of binaural auditory beats in cognition, anxiety, and pain perception: a meta-analysis. Psychol Res. 2019;83(2):357-372. doi:10.1007/s00426-018-1066-8 PMID 30073406 Go to source

Melnichuk ve ark. 2025 · Experiment · 80 participants

Sixteen parameter conditions were tested; 80 undergraduates were randomized and 64 analysed. 40 Hz binaural beats with a low (340 Hz) carrier improved general attention performance but did not prevent the decline of attention over time. EEG showed a response at the beat frequency that varied with parameters and weakened under white-noise masking. The authors say the finding needs replication.

Higher hit rate than a pure tone for 40 Hz beats with a 340 Hz carrier (p = 0.002); no effect on the vigilance decrement

Melnichuk A, Cooper RK, Hawk LW. A parametric investigation of binaural beats for brain entrainment and enhancing sustained attention. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):4308. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-88517-z PMID 39910150 Go to source

Riedy ve ark. 2021 · Systematic review · 38 studies

Across 38 studies of continuous white or similar broadband noise and sleep, findings ranged from noise helping sleep to disrupting it. By GRADE, the quality of evidence that continuous noise benefits sleep was very low; the authors warn that continuous noise may also harm sleep and hearing.

Riedy SM, Smith MG, Rocha S, Basner M. Noise as a sleep aid: A systematic review. Sleep Med Rev. 2021;55:101385. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101385 PMID 33007706 Go to source

Capezuti ve ark. 2022 · Systematic review · 34 studies · 1,103 participants

The review covered 34 studies (1,103 adults) of white noise, pink noise and mixed-audio interventions; 19 reported improved sleep outcomes, with a higher share for pink noise. The authors concluded there was no strong evidence supporting auditory stimulation; no adverse effects were reported with short-term use.

No pooled effect; 19 of 34 studies reported improved sleep outcomes

Binaural tones were excluded from the review.

Capezuti E, Pain K, Alamag E, Chen X, Philibert V, Krieger AC. Systematic review: auditory stimulation and sleep. J Clin Sleep Med. 2022;18(6):1697-1709. doi:10.5664/jcsm.9860 PMID 34964434 Go to source

Ding ve ark. 2025 · Meta-analysis · 12 studies · 1,301 participants

A meta-analysis of 12 randomized trials of white noise (1,301 participants: infants, adults and older adults, including intensive-care patients) found better sleep-quality scores (PSQI) in adults and older adults and longer 24-hour sleep in infants. The authors note the results are limited by heterogeneity and study quality.

Adults: PSQI mean difference −3.70 (95% CI −4.90 to −2.50); infants: 24-h total sleep time +137.5 min (95% CI 67.8 to 207.2)

Much of the evidence comes from intensive-care patients and infants.

Ding Y, Sun X, Yin J, Wang Z, Zhang X, Zhang D, et al. Impact of white noise on sleep quality across age groups and in critically ill/non-critically ill patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Sleep Med. 2025;136:106869. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2025.106869 PMID 41151421 Go to source

Basner ve ark. 2026 · Randomised controlled trial · 25 participants

A seven-night laboratory study in 25 healthy adults: intermittent environmental noise mainly reduced deep sleep (N3), whereas pink noise mainly reduced REM sleep, and adding pink noise to environmental noise worsened sleep structure further. Earplugs prevented most environmental-noise effects. The authors caution against widespread, indiscriminate use of broadband noise.

Pink noise alone (50 dBA) vs a quiet night: REM sleep −18.6 min (p = .0003)

Basner M, Smith MG, Cordoza M, Kayser MS, Carlin M, Ecker AJ, et al. Efficacy of pink noise and earplugs for mitigating the effects of intermittent environmental noise exposure on sleep. Sleep. 2026;49(5):zsag001. doi:10.1093/sleep/zsag001 PMID 41627391 Go to source

Hugh ve ark. 2014 · Experiment

Fourteen infant sleep machines were measured at maximum volume: at 30 cm all exceeded the 50 dBA limit recommended for hospital nurseries, and 3 exceeded 85 dBA. The authors concluded these devices can produce levels that may damage infant hearing.

Hugh SC, Wolter NE, Propst EJ, Gordon KA, Cushing SL, Papsin BC. Infant sleep machines and hazardous sound pressure levels. Pediatrics. 2014;133(4):677-681. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-3617 PMID 24590753 Go to source

Khandelwal ve ark. 2025 · Systematic review · 7 studies · 496 participants

Seven randomised trials (496 participants) of sound machines for hospitalised adults were reviewed; six used white noise. The studies showed improved sleep efficiency with white noise, which was well tolerated. Differences in duration, participants and scales prevented a meta-analysis.

Khandelwal K, Anyim A, Shu S, Gerberi D, Yousufuddin M, Pagali S. Impact and efficacy of sound machine on sleep in hospitalized adults: A systematic review. Sleep Med X. 2025;10:100154. doi:10.1016/j.sleepx.2025.100154 PMID 41141950 Go to source

Calamassi ve Pomponi 2019 · Pilot study · 33 participants

In 33 healthy volunteers, music tuned to 432 Hz was associated with a borderline-significant (p = 0.05) larger drop in heart rate than 440 Hz; trends in blood pressure and breathing rate were not significant. The authors call for larger randomized studies.

432 Hz vs 440 Hz: mean heart rate −4.79 bpm (p = 0.05, borderline)

Erratum published: Explore (NY) 2020;16(1):8, PMID 32113613.

Calamassi D, Pomponi GP. Music Tuned to 440 Hz Versus 432 Hz and the Health Effects: A Double-blind Cross-over Pilot Study. Explore (NY). 2019;15(4):283-290. doi:10.1016/j.explore.2019.04.001 PMID 31031095 Go to source

Calamassi ve ark. 2022 · Pilot study · 54 participants

During the COVID-19 pandemic, 54 emergency staff compared 440 Hz music, 432 Hz music and a break without music. State anxiety fell in all three groups, even without music; drops in breathing rate and systolic blood pressure appeared only in the 432 Hz group. Groups were compared only before and after within themselves, not with each other.

Calamassi D, Li Vigni ML, Fumagalli C, Gheri F, Pomponi GP, Bambi S. The Listening to music tuned to 440 Hz versus 432 Hz to reduce anxiety and stress in emergency nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic: a double-blind, randomized controlled pilot study. Acta Biomed. 2022;93(S2):e2022149. doi:10.23750/abm.v93iS2.12915 PMID 35545982 Go to source

Hohneck ve ark. 2025 · Randomised controlled trial · 43 participants

In 43 cancer patients, a 15-minute live monochord session tuned to 432 Hz was compared with 443 Hz. Both lowered heart rate and brought similar positive changes in emotional well-being, fatigue, anxiety and stress scores; the drops in heart rate and pulse-wave velocity were larger with 432 Hz, while other measures did not differ.

Heart-rate change −3 (432 Hz) vs −1 bpm (443 Hz), p = 0.04

Hohneck A, Rodríguez ÁM, Weingärtner S, Merx K, Sarodnick F, von Gagern F, et al. Differential effects of sound interventions tuned to 432 Hz or 443 Hz on cardiovascular parameters in cancer patients: a randomized cross-over trial. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2025;25(1):18. doi:10.1186/s12906-025-04758-5 PMID 39844155 Go to source

Jebabli ve ark. 2025 · Randomised controlled trial · 28 participants

In 28 kickboxers, warming up with music at about 440 Hz was associated with better speed-test performance and lower perceived exertion than music at 432 Hz; both beat no music.

Jebabli N, Boujabli M, Khlifi M, Ouerghi N, Bouassida A, Ben Abderrahman A, et al. Effects of 440-Hz vs. 432-Hz preferred music frequencies, during warm-up, on intermittent anaerobic speed test performance in men and women kickboxers: a double-blind crossover study. PeerJ. 2025;13:e19084. doi:10.7717/peerj.19084 PMID 40061232 Go to source

Bozok ve ark. 2026 · Randomised controlled trial · 162 participants

162 healthy university students under exam stress were randomized to no music, 528 Hz music or 432 Hz music. 528 Hz music raised salivary BDNF and CREB, and 432 Hz music raised GRP78; Stroop attention-test performance did not differ between groups.

528 Hz versus control: higher salivary BDNF and CREB (p < 0.05); GRP78 elevated in the 432 Hz group (p < 0.05); no between-group Stroop difference

The reported registration number is not in ClinicalTrials.gov format; the registration could not be confirmed.

Bozok ÜG, Özcan GB, Bayraktar B, Özen D. Acute Music-Frequency Exposure Modulates Salivary Stress and Neurotrophic Markers in Young Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Brain Behav. 2026;16(5):e71452. doi:10.1002/brb3.71452 PMID 42043979 Go to source

Buxton ve ark. 2021 · Meta-analysis · 36 studies

A systematic review of 36 publications on the health effects of natural sounds; a meta-analysis of 18 of them found reduced stress and annoyance and improved health and positive affect.

Stress and annoyance: g = −0.60 (95% CI −0.97 to −0.23)

Buxton RT, Pearson AL, Allou C, Fristrup K, Wittemyer G. A synthesis of health benefits of natural sounds and their distribution in national parks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021;118(14):e2013097118. doi:10.1073/pnas.2013097118 PMID 33753555 Go to source

Zhu ve ark. 2024 · Meta-analysis · 15 studies · 1,285 participants

A meta-analysis of 15 studies (1285 participants) of listening to live or recorded natural sounds: reductions in anxiety measures, heart rate, blood pressure and respiratory rate; no consistent result for cognitive recovery. Heterogeneity between studies was marked.

Zhu R, Yuan L, Pan Y, Wang Y, Xiu D, Liu W. Effects of natural sound exposure on health recovery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Total Environ. 2024;921:171052. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171052 PMID 38373459 Go to source

Fan ve Baharum 2024 · Meta-analysis

A meta-analysis comparing natural sounds with a quiet environment: differences favouring natural sounds in heart rate, blood pressure and respiratory rate; no difference in perceived stress, mean arterial pressure or oxygen saturation. The authors note the evidence is somewhat inconsistent.

Fan L, Baharum MR. The effect of exposure to natural sounds on stress reduction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stress. 2024;27(1):2402519. doi:10.1080/10253890.2024.2402519 PMID 39285764 Go to source

Ghai ve ark. 2026 · Meta-analysis · 73 studies · 5,201 participants

A meta-analysis of 73 studies (5201 participants) of yoga nidra found moderate-to-large effects on stress and anxiety. The authors note low methodological quality and varied delivery, and say the effects are likely inflated.

Stress: g = −0.80 (active comparator), −1.70 (no comparator)

First published online in 2025.

Ghai S, Odyniec P, Ghai I. Effects of Yoga Nidra on Stress, Anxiety, and Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2026;1556(1):e70149. doi:10.1111/nyas.70149 PMID 41327816 Go to source

Nigg ve ark. 2024 · Meta-analysis · 13 studies

In children and young adults with ADHD or high attention-problem symptoms (13 studies, 335 people), white and pink noise gave a small benefit on laboratory attention tasks. In comparison groups without these symptoms (11 studies) the effect was small and negative. No studies of brown noise were found.

With attention problems g = 0.249; without g = −0.212

First published online in February 2024. Appropriate sound levels are unknown.

Nigg JT, Bruton A, Kozlowski MB, Johnstone JM, Karalunas SL. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis: Do White Noise or Pink Noise Help With Task Performance in Youth With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder or With Elevated Attention Problems?. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2024;63(8):778-788. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2023.12.014 PMID 38428577 Go to source

Ang ve ark. 2025 · Meta-analysis · 11 studies · 341 participants

A meta-analysis of 11 controlled studies in 341 people over 50 with Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment: 40 Hz light-and-sound stimulation did not significantly change cognitive function or daily activities, though some brain-structure measures changed. Tinnitus was reported more often with stimulation (2 studies).

Cognitive function SMD 0.16 (95% CI −0.36 to 0.68; not significant); tinnitus risk difference 0.16 (p = 0.01; 2 studies)

Ang S, Zhang X, Hong J, Xue K, Li J, Du X, et al. The safety and efficacy of gamma frequency auditory and visual stimulation in the treatment of alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Transl Psychiatry. 2025;15(1):523. doi:10.1038/s41398-025-03788-4 PMID 41381439 Go to source

Bolland ve ark. 2026 · Systematic review · 62 studies · 2,179 participants

The review covered 62 studies (2,179 participants) of sound-only gamma stimulation in healthy and cognitively declining groups. Some reported positive changes in cognition and brain measures, but animal findings were not consistently replicated in humans, EEG responses did not predict cognitive effects and methods varied widely.

No pooled effect (qualitative synthesis)

First published online in 2025.

Bolland E, De Burca A, Wang SH, Khalil A, McLoughlin G. Efficacy of auditory gamma stimulation for cognitive decline: a systematic review of individual and group differences across cognitively impaired and healthy populations. NPJ Aging. 2026;12(1):8. doi:10.1038/s41514-025-00305-1 PMID 41350292 Go to source

Chan ve ark. 2025 · Pilot study · 5 participants

Five people with mild Alzheimer's disease received 1 hour of daily 40 Hz light-and-sound stimulation for two years, with no adverse events. In 3 late-onset patients, decline on cognitive measures was slower than in comparison groups drawn from external registries. The authors describe it as a small pilot supporting further research.

Chan D, de Weck G, Jackson BL, Suk HJ, Milman NP, Kitchener E, et al. Gamma sensory stimulation in mild Alzheimer's dementia: An open-label extension study. Alzheimers Dement. 2025;21(10):e70792. doi:10.1002/alz.70792 PMID 41137616 Go to source

Cognito Therapeutics 2022 · Clinical trial registration · 673 participants

A randomized, quadruple-blind study comparing 12 months of daily 60-minute gamma sensory stimulation (visual and audio per the registration; the 40 Hz detail is a company statement) with a sham device in Alzheimer's disease. With 673 participants, primary completion was 22 June 2026 and completion 17 August 2026; no results are posted in the registry (last update 9 September 2026) and none had been published as of 3 October 2026.

Cognito Therapeutics. A Randomized, Double-blind, Sham-controlled Pivotal Study of Sensory Stimulation in Subjects With Alzheimer's Disease (HOPE Study). ClinicalTrials.gov; 2022. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05637801 Go to source

Leistiko ve ark. 2024 · Experiment · 58 participants

In 58 healthy adults, 40 Hz (gamma) binaural beats did not change attention-test performance (reaction time, errors, attention networks) compared with a control tone, and had no effect on a single-item self-rating of anxiety.

No significant difference from a control tone in attention measures or self-rated anxiety

First published online in 2023. Within-subject crossover with randomized order.

Leistiko NM, Madanat L, Yeung WKA, Stone JM. Effects of gamma frequency binaural beats on attention and anxiety. Curr Psychol. 2024;43(6):5032-5039. doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04681-3 PMID 37359672 Go to source

Melnichuk ve ark. 2025 · Experiment · 80 participants

Sixteen parameter conditions were tested; 80 undergraduates were randomized and 64 analysed. 40 Hz binaural beats with a low (340 Hz) carrier improved general attention performance but did not prevent the decline of attention over time. EEG showed a response at the beat frequency that varied with parameters and weakened under white-noise masking. The authors say the finding needs replication.

Higher hit rate than a pure tone for 40 Hz beats with a 340 Hz carrier (p = 0.002); no effect on the vigilance decrement

Melnichuk A, Cooper RK, Hawk LW. A parametric investigation of binaural beats for brain entrainment and enhancing sustained attention. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):4308. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-88517-z PMID 39910150 Go to source

Hajós ve ark. 2024 · Randomised controlled trial · 76 participants

OVERTURE: a 6-month randomised, double-blind, sham-controlled trial in 76 people with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease using a device that delivers light and sound together for 1 hour a day. It was safe and well tolerated. There was no statistical separation between active and sham groups on the primary clinical measure or two secondary cognitive measures; some secondary measures reached nominal significance.

Most authors are employees of, and hold stock options in, the company that makes the device. The trial was not powered to assess efficacy.

Hajós M, Boasso A, Hempel E, Shpokayte M, Konisky A, Seshagiri CV, Fomenko V, Kwan K, Nicodemus-Johnson J, Hendrix S, Vaughan B, Kern R, Megerian JT, Malchano Z. Safety, tolerability, and efficacy estimate of evoked gamma oscillation in mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. Front Neurol. 2024;15:1343588. doi:10.3389/fneur.2024.1343588 PMID 38515445 Go to source

Akimoto ve ark. 2018 · Pilot study · 9 participants

Nine healthy adults listened to 528 Hz and 440 Hz music on different days. After 528 Hz music, salivary cortisol fell, oxytocin rose and tension-anxiety scores decreased; there were no significant salivary changes after 440 Hz.

Not indexed in PubMed; randomization and blinding are not reported.

Akimoto K, Hu A, Yamaguchi T, Kobayashi H. Effect of 528 Hz Music on the Endocrine System and Autonomic Nervous System. Health (Irvine Calif). 2018;10(9):1159-1170. doi:10.4236/health.2018.109088 Go to source

Bozok ve ark. 2026 · Randomised controlled trial · 162 participants

162 healthy university students under exam stress were randomized to no music, 528 Hz music or 432 Hz music. 528 Hz music raised salivary BDNF and CREB, and 432 Hz music raised GRP78; Stroop attention-test performance did not differ between groups.

528 Hz versus control: higher salivary BDNF and CREB (p < 0.05); GRP78 elevated in the 432 Hz group (p < 0.05); no between-group Stroop difference

The reported registration number is not in ClinicalTrials.gov format; the registration could not be confirmed.

Bozok ÜG, Özcan GB, Bayraktar B, Özen D. Acute Music-Frequency Exposure Modulates Salivary Stress and Neurotrophic Markers in Young Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Brain Behav. 2026;16(5):e71452. doi:10.1002/brb3.71452 PMID 42043979 Go to source

Voss ve ark. 2009 · Experiment · 6 participants

Sleep-lab EEG recordings of 6 volunteers trained in lucid dreaming showed higher gamma activity around 40 Hz, especially frontally, during lucid dreams. The authors present this as preliminary evidence that lucid dreaming is a hybrid state between waking and REM sleep.

Voss U, Holzmann R, Tuin I, Hobson JA. Lucid dreaming: a state of consciousness with features of both waking and non-lucid dreaming. Sleep. 2009;32(9):1191-1200. doi:10.1093/sleep/32.9.1191 PMID 19750924 Go to source

Voss ve ark. 2014 · Experiment

Weak electrical current (tACS) in the low gamma band (25 and 40 Hz) applied frontally during REM sleep increased self-awareness in dreams; other frequencies had no effect. The stimulation was electrical, not sound.

Voss U, Holzmann R, Hobson A, Paulus W, Koppehele-Gossel J, Klimke A, et al. Induction of self awareness in dreams through frontal low current stimulation of gamma activity. Nat Neurosci. 2014;17(6):810-812. doi:10.1038/nn.3719 PMID 24816141 Go to source

Blanchette-Carrière ve ark. 2020 · Experiment

In an attempt to induce lucid dreams with electrical stimulation (tACS), signal-verified lucid dreams occurred with stimulation but also with the sham procedure. The authors suggest situational factors may be decisive.

Blanchette-Carrière C, Julien SH, Picard-Deland C, Bouchard M, Carrier J, Paquette T, et al. Attempted induction of signalled lucid dreaming by transcranial alternating current stimulation. Conscious Cogn. 2020;83:102957. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2020.102957 PMID 32534325 Go to source

Stumbrys ve ark. 2012 · Systematic review · 35 studies

The 35 studies of lucid-dream induction techniques (cognitive techniques, external stimulation, a drug) were of relatively low methodological quality; no technique was verified to induce lucid dreams reliably and consistently, though some looked promising.

Stumbrys T, Erlacher D, Schädlich M, Schredl M. Induction of lucid dreams: a systematic review of evidence. Conscious Cogn. 2012;21(3):1456-1475. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.07.003 PMID 22841958 Go to source

Orozco Perez ve ark. 2020 · Experiment · 16 participants

In a 16-person EEG experiment, both binaural and monaural beats produced a brainstem response at the tone frequencies and a cortical response at the beat frequency; the cortical response to binaural beats was weaker than to monaural beats. Neither stimulus changed mood.

Orozco Perez HD, Dumas G, Lehmann A. Binaural Beats through the Auditory Pathway: From Brainstem to Connectivity Patterns. eNeuro. 2020;7(2):ENEURO.0232-19.2020. doi:10.1523/ENEURO.0232-19.2020 PMID 32066611 Go to source

Akkurt ve Ekici 2026 · Randomised controlled trial · 90 participants

In 90 patients undergoing impacted lower third molar surgery in Türkiye, neither binaural beats nor isochronic tones reduced anxiety compared with no sound; only isolated physiological differences appeared. Of the patients who received sound, 78.3% said they would prefer it again in future procedures.

No significant between-group differences in pre- or postoperative anxiety scores

In press; no volume or pages yet.

Akkurt O, Ekici Ö. Effect of binaural beats and isochronic tones on anxiety during impacted mandibular third molar surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2026. doi:10.1016/j.ijom.2026.07.006 PMID 42471303 Go to source

Chaieb ve ark. 2022 · Experiment

In participants with a high tendency to mind-wander, mind wandering fell significantly during monaural theta beats compared with a sine tone; a reduction compared with silence appeared only in a subgroup selected with stricter criteria. The authors report that the main hypothesis was only partly confirmed.

Chaieb L, Krakau S, Reber TP, Fell J. Modulation of Mind Wandering Using Monaural Beat Stimulation in Subjects With High Trait-Level Mind Wandering. Front Psychol. 2022;13:815442. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.815442 PMID 35769725 Go to source

Orozco Perez ve ark. 2020 · Experiment · 16 participants

In a 16-person EEG experiment, both binaural and monaural beats produced a brainstem response at the tone frequencies and a cortical response at the beat frequency; the cortical response to binaural beats was weaker than to monaural beats. Neither stimulus changed mood.

Orozco Perez HD, Dumas G, Lehmann A. Binaural Beats through the Auditory Pathway: From Brainstem to Connectivity Patterns. eNeuro. 2020;7(2):ENEURO.0232-19.2020. doi:10.1523/ENEURO.0232-19.2020 PMID 32066611 Go to source

Akkurt ve Ekici 2026 · Randomised controlled trial · 90 participants

In 90 patients undergoing impacted lower third molar surgery in Türkiye, neither binaural beats nor isochronic tones reduced anxiety compared with no sound; only isolated physiological differences appeared. Of the patients who received sound, 78.3% said they would prefer it again in future procedures.

No significant between-group differences in pre- or postoperative anxiety scores

In press; no volume or pages yet.

Akkurt O, Ekici Ö. Effect of binaural beats and isochronic tones on anxiety during impacted mandibular third molar surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2026. doi:10.1016/j.ijom.2026.07.006 PMID 42471303 Go to source

Shumov ve ark. 2023 · Experiment · 221 participants

221 people fell asleep at home with an app on their own phone while listening to three kinds of monotonous sound at the same pitch: binaural beats, monaural beats and a sound without beats. Sleep latency did not differ significantly between the three conditions (p = 0.21).

The article is in Russian; this summary is based on the English abstract.

Shumov DE, Sveshnikov DS, Bakaeva ZV, Dorokhov VB. Monotonous sound stimuli embedded with either binaural or monaural beats have the same effect on sleep latency: study on a large subject group. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2023;123(4):109-113. doi:10.17116/jnevro2023123041109 PMID 37084374 Go to source

Stanhope ve Weinstein 2020 · Systematic review · 4 studies

A systematic review of the health effects of singing bowls found only 4 peer-reviewed studies, two with low-level designs. Improvements in mood and some physiological measures were reported; the authors do not yet recommend singing bowl practices because of the few studies and risk of bias.

Stanhope J, Weinstein P. The human health effects of singing bowls: A systematic review. Complement Ther Med. 2020;51:102412. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2020.102412 PMID 32507429 Go to source

Aparicio-Terrés ve ark. 2025 · Review

A narrative review of behavioural, cognitive and neural findings on non-ordinary states induced by drumming and rhythmic sounds. The findings fit the view that these sounds facilitate absorption and relaxation; neural findings vary with method. The mechanism the authors propose is a hypothesis.

Aparicio-Terrés R, López-Mochales S, Díaz-Andreu M, Escera C. The neurobiology of altered states of consciousness induced by drumming and other rhythmic sound patterns. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2025;1550(1):55-70. doi:10.1111/nyas.15403 PMID 40668575 Go to source

Hove ve ark. 2016 · Experiment · 15 participants

Fifteen experienced shamanic practitioners listened to rhythmic drumming in an fMRI scanner and either entered trance or did not. During trance, a network linked to internally oriented thought was more co-active with control networks, and auditory pathways were less connected.

First published online in 2015. Participants were experienced practitioners; results do not generalise to all listeners.

Hove MJ, Stelzer J, Nierhaus T, Thiel SD, Gundlach C, Margulies DS, Van Dijk KR, Turner R, Keller PE, Merker B. Brain Network Reconfiguration and Perceptual Decoupling During an Absorptive State of Consciousness. Cereb Cortex. 2016;26(7):3116-3124. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhv137 PMID 26108612 Go to source

Poerio ve ark. 2018 · Experiment

In two studies, one large online and one in the lab, ASMR videos increased pleasant affect only in people who experience ASMR. In the lab study, ASMR came with a lower heart rate and higher skin conductance.

Poerio GL, Blakey E, Hostler TJ, Veltri T. More than a feeling: Autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) is characterized by reliable changes in affect and physiology. PLoS One. 2018;13(6):e0196645. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196645 PMID 29924796 Go to source

Hozaki ve ark. 2025 · Experiment

In two experiments, audiovisual ASMR videos produced stronger tingling than audio-only ones. Both ASMR and nature videos lowered pulse rate compared with rest, with a larger drop for ASMR.

Hozaki D, Ezaki T, Poerio GL, Kondo HM. More relaxing than nature? The impact of ASMR content on psychological and physiological measures of parasympathetic activity. Neurosci Conscious. 2025;2025(1):niaf012. doi:10.1093/nc/niaf012 PMID 40342555 Go to source

Wunderlin ve ark. 2021 · Meta-analysis · 10 studies · 177 participants

A meta-analysis of 10 studies (177 participants) of short acoustic stimuli timed to slow waves during deep sleep and overnight episodic memory: the combined effect was small and at trend level, significant in phase-locked subgroups. The authors say the evidence is not sufficient to recommend commercial devices.

g = 0.25 (p = 0.07)

Wunderlin M, Züst MA, Hertenstein E, Fehér KD, Schneider CL, Klöppel S, Nissen C. Modulating overnight memory consolidation by acoustic stimulation during slow-wave sleep: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep. 2021;44(7):zsaa296. doi:10.1093/sleep/zsaa296 PMID 33406249 Go to source

Vickrey ve Lerner 2023 · Experiment · 72 participants

In 72 participants, continuous (open-loop) pink noise during sleep did not increase insight compared with silent sleep; results were closer to the wake group. Pink noise shortened the first light-sleep (N1) period just after sleep onset.

Vickrey B, Lerner I. Overnight exposure to pink noise could jeopardize sleep-dependent insight and pattern detection. Front Hum Neurosci. 2023;17:1302836. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1302836 PMID 38107593 Go to source

Horowitz ve Puleo 1999 · Book (not peer-reviewed)

One of the books that spread the modern 'Solfeggio frequencies' interpretation. It is not a peer-reviewed scientific study; it is cited to show where the interpretation comes from.

Horowitz LG, Puleo J. Healing Codes for the Biological Apocalypse. Tetrahedron Publishing Group; 1999. ISBN 0923550399 Go to source

Price 2016 · Review

Lightning excites global electromagnetic resonances (Schumann resonances) at about 8, 14 and 20 Hz in the cavity between the Earth's surface and the ionosphere. The review covers their history, theory and use in lightning research.

Price C. ELF Electromagnetic Waves from Lightning: The Schumann Resonances. Atmosphere (Basel). 2016;7(9):116. doi:10.3390/atmos7090116 Go to source

Cousto 1987 · Book (not peer-reviewed)

Computes tones by transposing the frequencies of periodic phenomena such as planetary orbits, the Earth's rotation and lunar phases into the audible range by octaves (the "cosmic octave"). It is not a peer-reviewed scientific study; it is cited to show where the chakra tone set comes from.

English translation (from the German original); Open Library record: LifeRhythm, Mendocino, 1987, 121 pages.

Cousto H. The Cosmic Octave: Origin of Harmony; Planets, Tones, Colors; the Power of Inherent Vibrations. LifeRhythm; 1987. ISBN 0940795043 Go to source

Cousto 2009 · Institutional page

Assigns these tones to the seven chakras: 1. root 194.18 Hz (Earth day), 2. sacral 210.42 Hz (synodic Moon), 3. solar plexus 126.22 Hz (Sun tone), 4. heart 136.10 Hz (Earth year), 5. throat 141.27 Hz (Mercury), 6. brow (third eye) 221.23 Hz (Venus), 7. crown 172.06 Hz (Platonic year). Except for the Sun tone, the tones are octave multiples of the respective periods (e.g. 194.18 Hz is the 24th octave of one day); the Sun tone is computed 8 octaves below the frequency of a hypothetical orbit around the Sun.

Planetware's tuning fork booklet (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). The booklet's descriptions of effects and medical uses are not used in the product. The Earth day, synodic Moon, Earth year, Platonic year, Mercury and Venus tones were verified by recomputing them from the orbital periods (e.g. 2²⁴ / 86,400 s = 194.18 Hz).

Cousto H. The Cosmic Octave Tuning Forks. Planetware; 2009. Go to source

Blanke ve Arzy 2005 · Review

Drawing on neurology, cognitive neuroscience and neuroimaging, the article links out-of-body experiences to a failure to integrate bodily sensory information at the brain's temporo-parietal junction.

Blanke O, Arzy S. The out-of-body experience: disturbed self-processing at the temporo-parietal junction. Neuroscientist. 2005;11(1):16-24. doi:10.1177/1073858404270885 PMID 15632275 Go to source

Çoban 2012 · Review

The author, a psychiatrist and performer of classical Turkish music, reports that the link between makam and body is said to go back to al-Farabi and that Ottoman physicians such as Şuuri Hasan Efendi and Gevrekzade Hasan Efendi wrote about the effects of makams on emotions. In his view this remains historical information: with no research showing its validity and reliability, it has no clinical value today.

A magazine article, not peer-reviewed research (Spring 2012). It contains other views on music that are not used here; only the section on the historical nature of the makam tradition (p. 69) is relied on.

Çoban A. Hoş sedanın gücü: Müzikoterapi. SD dergisi. 2012(22):68-71. Go to source

Kıranlar ve Koçak 2017 · Review

A short note on the silhouette of the Bayezid II Darüşşifa in the Trakya University medical journal's logo. It notes that the hospital offered "experimental practices" such as music and occupation alongside the traditional medicine of the period, and that the building has presented this past as a medicine and health museum since 1997.

A short note, not a peer-reviewed study; it gives no specific makam or time-of-day mapping.

Kıranlar Ö, Koçak Z. A Short Note About the Reconsideration of the Image of Bayezid II Darüşşifa. Balkan Med J. 2017;34(3):187. doi:10.4274/balkanmedj.2017.3.0001 PMID 28559219 Go to source

Özkan 2003 · Institutional page

Entry "Makam": Safi al-Din al-Urmawi's Kitab al-Adwar describes twelve modes (uşşak, neva, buselik, rast, ırak, ısfahan, zirefkend, büzürg, zengule, rahevi, hüseyni, hicazi); in this system the twelve modes were matched to the twelve zodiac signs and the four branches to the four elements.

The page gives 2003 as the print date.

Özkan İH. Makam. TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi; 2003. Go to source